A clean, healthy, and sustainable environment is now recognised globally and nationally as a basic entitlement of the people. Together with incomes and basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter and health, a clean environment is an integral component of human wellbeing. The environment plays an important preventive role in preventive health care. Any failure in maintaining good-quality environmental services leads to an increase in disease burden, and in household and public expenditure on health care. The origins of environmental problems are often multi-dimensional and may involve several social and economic sectors. At the same time, widespread environmental issues may permit simple solutions with a few critical regulatory measures.
Article 48-A of the Constitution of India authorises the State to protect and improve the environment and the forest and wildlife of the country. Accordingly, Environmental Management Agency, Kerala was constituted in 2007, which was subsequently transformed into the Directorate of Environment and Climate Change in 2010. The Government of Kerala implements several regulatory and promotional measures for environmental protection and conservation mainly through Environment Department. The directorate initially started an assessment of effectiveness of the sectoral environment management programmes, and formulated strategies for undertaking key environmental initiatives. Major thrust was given on the environment management ensuring a balanced approach towards economic development and cleaner environment. Besides environment management, programmes implemented by different institutions like Kerala State Pollution Control Board and Kerala State Biodiveristy Board were coordinated by the Environment Department.
During the 12th Five-Year Plan, in order to encourage environmental protection activities, the Department established eco-clubs, named Bhoomithrasena in colleges across the State in all districts. These clubs have undertaken environmental protection activities of their surrounding areas. Other activities include eco restoration of wetlands, promoting research and development in environmental sciences, climate change environment management and related engineering and technology. Some of the studies supported by the department include carbon sequestration status of selected forest ecosystems of Kerala, development of a native micro algal system for the removal of Green house gases from flue gas and its optimisation studies for biofuel production, studies on the effect of plant secondary metabolites on the control of mosquito vectors etc. During the 12th Five-Year Plan period, budgeted outlay for the three institutions, that is Directorate of Environment, Kerala State Biodiversity Board, Kerala State Pollution Control Board, together was 118.42 crore, of which 79.82 crore was utilised (67.40 per cent) for implementing various schemes. Details of 12th Five-Year Plan outlay and expenditure is given in Appendix 2.97.
The Kerala State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) has the mandate to prevent and control the water and air pollution and maintain and restore the wholesomeness of water, air, soil and environment. The KSPCB has strengthened its initiatives for generating baseline data and periodical monitoring of the air and water quality.
Ambient air quality is also monitored by the Kerala State Pollution Control Board for Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX) from 30 stations located in industrial, residential and sensitive areas. As per the Pollution Control Board’s Water and Air Quality Directory (2016), at the monitoring stations located in residential area, the Respirable Suspended Particle Matter (RSPM) values exceeded the permissible level of 60 micro gram per cubic meter only at Ernakulam- Perumbavoor (61). SO2 and NOX levels are observed to be almost always within the prescribed limits. The measurements of 9 major monitoring stations for 2016 are given in Figure 2.23.
Source: Water and Air Quality Directory, KSPCB
A large number of environmental issues continue to demand attention, ranging from river pollution by sewage and other waste generated by urban and rural settlements to intense noise pollution. Such a wide range of issues demand concerted attention by regulatory authorities especially the Pollution Control Board, whose functioning must be streamlined and strengthened with adequate capacity for implementation, enforcement and the pursuit of punitive legal action where necessary. Kerala State Pollution Control Board is monitoring water quality at 65 river stations, 7 Rivulets, 3 fresh water lakes, 8 estuarine lakes, 6 reservoir stations, 3 canals, 2 ponds and 34 well stations in the State. The monitored data is analysed statistically and compared with the water quality criteria. Central Pollution Control Board has evolved a concept of Designated Best Use (DBU) to define the level of wholesomeness of the different water bodies to be maintained or restored according to the primary use of water body. Based on DBU measures, stretches which has BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) of 2mg/l or less is a drinking water source without conventional treatment but after disfenction and BOD of 3 mg/l or less can be used for outdoor bathing. As per Annual report of KSPCB (2016), BOD levels at selected river stations shows that these major rivers are not polluted severely, But the trend reveals that as compared to 2011, BOD levels have increased in 7 river stations during the year 2016. (Figure 2.24)
Source: Water and Air Quality Directory 2016, KSPCB
Under Haritha Keralam mission, Government of Kerala is set to intensify efforts on protecting and conserving Kerala’s environment in all its respects. However, as an integrated mission, its scope will include the efforts of multiple departments and not only specifically the Department of Environment.
Biodiversity Conservation
Kerala State Biodiversity Board (KSBB) is an autonomous body under the Environment department. In accordance with the provisions of Biological Diversity Act 2002 KSBB was established in the year 2005 with the mandatory objectives of ensuring the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable utilisation of the resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of it.
Kerala is rich in biodiversity but the high density of population and major transformation of the landscape emphasise the urgency for conservation of the floral and faunal diversity and sustainable use of its resources. The State contains more than 4,500 species of flowering plants of which above 1,500 are endemic in nature. Of 1,847 vertebrates of Kerala, 205 (11 per cent) species are listed as threatened in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species of which 23 are Critically Endangered, 90 are Endangered and 92 are Vulnerable. Ninety-eight per cent of fishes and 87 per cent of amphibians of Kerala have not been included under any Schedule of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972) (WPA). Out of 779 marine species 93 per cent is not included in any Schedules of Wildlife Protection Act. The highest level of endemism (between 77-102 species per sub basin) and highest species richness (133-160 species per sub basin) is found in the west flowing rivers Chaliyar, Bharatapuzha, Chalakkudy, Periyar, and Pamba with point endemics in certain cases.
The fragile nature of ecosystem in Kerala is a concern and many natural and man-made causes pose a great threat to its biodiversity. The following conservation initiatives are going on in the State:
Significant efforts though are still required to implement biodiversity related initiatives based on the information and knowledge obtained through the PBRs. Though there is considerable scope for enhancing revenue from the access and benefit-sharing (ABS) provisions of biodiversity legislation and rules, the current revenue is negligible.
Climate Change
Climate change is an emerging constraint for development. There are issues of the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions as well as of the adaptation required to deal with the impact of climate change on various sectors. One of the primary consequences of global warming is the stress it will place on agriculture and related sectors. Another such sector is infrastructure development. Coastal areas in general and coastal infrastructure in particular are at risk from sea-level rise. International cooperation in climate change often offers useful knowledge inputs, particularly in terms of scientific and technical knowhow. Nevertheless, aligning international, national and State-level policy for coping with global warming requires careful consideration, ensuring that the developmental aspirations of the population in the region are also given due consideration.
Exposure to climate change can be considered to be high in Kerala due to its unique social, economic, environmental and physical conditions that amplify susceptibility to negative impacts and contribute to low capacity to cope with and adapt to climate related hazards. Maximum, minimum and average temperatures in the State have been consistently warming and 2016 happens to be the warmest on record. Associated with this, the greenhouse gas (GHG) concentration has also crossed the limit of 400 ppm, which would have disastrous effect on agriculture. Concurrently, the farmers are facing challenges of natural resource degradation, high input costs and frequent weather fluctuations due to anthropogenic climate change.
In Kerala, climate change is beginning to enter the agenda of development planning in recent years. Kerala has adopted a State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC) in 2014, but is largely led by the National Action Plan for Climate Change as far as mitigation efforts are concerned. The SAPCC has identified specific vulnerabilities under the key sectors – agriculture, animal husbandry, water resources, forest and biodiversity, fisheries and coastal resources, health, energy, urban front and transportation, and tourism. The SAPCC envisaged climate change strategies need to be integrated in the development planning process in the State placing the climate change concerns at the forefront of sustainable development and thereby improving the quality of life of the people of the State.
India’s contribution to cumulative global CO2 emissions so far is approximately only 3 per cent. However, the per capita CO2 emission in the country increased steadily during 1990-2014. Its per capita greenhouse gas emissions is also low, amounting to only 1.56 tons of CO2 equivalent in 2010. India is one of the countries on course to achieve the voluntary goal of reducing the Green House Gas (GHG) emission intensity of GDP (Emission Gap Report, 2014, UNEP). India’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in the Paris Agreement focuses on reducing the GHG emission intensity of GDP to 35 per cent by 2030, a reduction of 33 per cent from 2005 level.
The country has also initiated efforts in climate change adaptation actions. It is universally acknowledged that India will be one of the nation’s that will bear the brunt of the impacts of climate change across many sectors, particularly those closely connected to the biosphere such as crop production, plantations, fisheries, forests, etc. Kerala needs to pay particular concern to climate adaptation while the scope for mitigation action is less than many other parts of the country.
Clean Environment Cess
A major tool proposed to deal with climate change is the introduction of carbon taxes, though globally concerns have been expressed regarding the negative distributional impact of carbon taxes in developing countries. The relatively high cost of fossil fuels in India has acted as an effective carbon tax. The Government of India in its submission of the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) to the Paris talks has noted that oil prices amounted to an effective carbon tax of $140 per tonne of CO2 for petrol and $ 64 per tonne of CO2 from diesel. This is well above the internationally expected "reasonable" tax of $25 to $35 per tonne. Government of India introduced clean energy cess on coal in 2010. Through Finance Bill 2010-11, a corpus called National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) was created out of cess on coal produced/imported for the purpose of financing and promoting clean energy initiatives, funding research in the area of clean energy or for any other purpose relating therto. The coal cess has been fixed at 400 per tonne in the Union Budget 2016-17 and the same has been renamed as Clean Environment Cess.
Climate Finance
There are various national and international funds available to effectively manage and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Some of the important funds available are 1. Adaptation Fund 2. Green Climate Fund (GCF) 3. International Climate Initiative (IKI) 4. Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change (NAFCC).
Adaptation Fund
Adaptation fund was established in 2001 under the Kyoto Protocol of United Nations Frameworks Convention (UNFCC), which become fully functional since 2010, and is committed to climate adaptation and resilience activities. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the national implementing entity accredited for the fund in India.
Green Climate Fund
It was established to act as a central global investment vehicle for climate finance, under which industrialised countries would assist developing countries with new finance for public and private sector projects and programmes. Similar to Adaptation Fund, the GCF will give reciepient countries direct access to funding through accredited national (NABARD for India), regional and international implementing entities and intermediaries.
International Climate Initiative
It is a funding instrument of the German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMBU). It finances climate and biodiversity projects in developing and newly industrialising countries, as well as in countries in transition.
Special Climate Change Fund
SCCF was established in 2001 under UNFCC to finance activities, programmes and measures relating to climate change that are complimentary to those funded under the Climate Change Focal Area of the Global Environment Facility, and by bilateral and multilateral funding. The investment priorities of SCCF include, adaptation, transfer of technologies, energy, transport, industry, forestry and waste management.
National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change (NAFCC)
The objective of the NAFCC established by the Government of India under the Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (MoEF & CC) is to assist State and Union Territories that are vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change in scaling up climate change adaptation interventions, in accordance with the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCCs). It had a Budget provision of 350 crore for the year 2015-16 and 2016-17. NABARD has been appointed as the National implementing entity and is responsible for implementation of adaptation projects. The State Government Departments are the executing entities and can submit proposals for accessing NAFCC funds.
NAFCC Project in Kerala: 'Project for promotion of Integrated farming Systems of Kaippad and Pokkali.
The State has secured funding under the NAFCC for a project "Promotion of Integrated farming systems of Kaippad and Pokkali in coastal wetlands of Kerala" to revive 600 hectares (300 hectares of Pokkali wetlands in Thrissur, Ernakulam, and Alappuzha districts and 300 hectares of Kaipad wetlands in Kannur) of coastal wetlands for climate-resilient farming. The total cost of the project is 25 crore, and the period of the project is four years (2015-19). The Agency for Development of Aquaculture (ADAK), Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala, is the executing entity for the project.